Unpaid Seller

 An unpaid seller, defined under Section 45 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, is a seller who has not been paid the full price for goods sold, either because the full amount remains unpaid, a credit period has expired, or a negotiable instrument like a bill of exchange has been dishonoured. The law provides specific rights to protect the unpaid seller's interests, which are categorized into rights against the goods and rights against the buyer.

The primary rights of an unpaid seller against the goods include:

• Right of Lien (Section 47): The right to retain possession of the goods until the buyer pays the full price. This right exists when the goods are sold without credit, the credit period has expired, or the buyer has become insolvent. The seller can exercise this right while in possession of the goods, including as an agent or bailee for the buyer. The lien is lost if the goods are delivered to a carrier without reserving the right to dispose of them, if the buyer or their agent gains lawful possession, or if the lien is waived.

• Right of Stoppage in Transit (Section 50): The right to regain possession of goods while they are in transit to the buyer. This right can be exercised if the buyer becomes insolvent while the goods are in transit, or if the seller has not yet delivered the goods to the buyer or their agent. The transit period begins when the goods are delivered to a carrier and ends when the buyer or their agent takes delivery, the carrier acknowledges the goods are held for the buyer, or the carrier refuses to deliver.

• Right of Resale (Section 54): The right to sell the goods to another buyer under specific circumstances. This right is available for perishable goods or when the seller has exercised the right of lien or stoppage in transit and has given notice to the buyer of the intention to resell. If the resale price is lower than the original contract price, the seller can claim the difference as damages from the original buyer.

The rights of an unpaid seller against the buyer include:

• Right to Sue for the Price (Section 55): If the property in the goods has passed to the buyer, the seller can sue the buyer for the price of the goods if the buyer refuses to pay.

• Right to Sue for Damages for Non-Acceptance (Section 56): If the buyer wrongfully refuses to accept the goods, the seller can sue for damages. The damages are calculated as the difference between the contract price and the market price on the day of the breach, or the cost of reselling the goods if the seller chooses to resell.

• Right to Sue for Interest (Section 61): The seller can claim interest on the price from the due date, either based on a prior agreement or as determined by the court if no agreement exists.

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

PART-IV-A

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

(Article 51-A)

Q. 27. Indian Constitution also provides for some Fundamental Outies for the citizens of India alongwith their Fundamental Rights. What are Fundamental Duties which are binding on every citizen of India?

 Or 

What are the Fundamental Duties and what is their importance?

(MGKV 2015,18,22)

Answer:

Fundamental Duties and their importance

On the recommendation of Dr. Swarn Singh Committee, 42nd Amendment Act of the Constitution, added Article 51-A to the Constitution of India which prescribes ten duties of every citizen of India. The eighty-sixth Amendment Act of the Constitution added one more fundamental duty. There are total eleven fundamental duties of the citizens. Such provisions do not occur in the Constitutions of the Free World Countries but our law-makers in enacting them were inspired by the provisions for fundamental duties in the Constitutions of many socialist countries, e.g., of Yugoslavia. But the fundamental duties in the Indian Constitution are taken from the former U.S.S.R.'s Constitution. The provisions of the duties aim at citizen's duty to abide by the Constitution, and his role in the defence, good social relations development, general național uplift and social solidarity. The fundamental duties are intended to serve as a constant reminder to every citizen that while the Constitution specifically conferred on him certain Fundamental Rights he is also required to observe certain basic norms of democratic conduct and democratic behaviour. While the Constitution confers certain Fundamental Rights on the citizens it also gives power to State to impose reasonable restrictions on these rights. The rights guaranteed by the Constitution are available to the citizens only when they fulfil their duties. This is implicit in the provisions of our Constitution.

Fundamental Duties (Article 51-A).-It shall be the duty of every citizen of India-

(1) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem;

(2) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;

(3) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;

(4) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;

(5) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;

(6) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;

(7) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures;

(8) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;

(9) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

(10) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity, so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;

(11) who is parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years." (Added by the 86th Constitutional (Amendment) Act 2002).

It is fundamental duty of every citizen to safeguard public property. It is obligation of State Government to take action when officers of the State 

भाग-IV-AGovernment notice defacement of property by display of illegal hoardings banners, sky signs, advertisement etc. at public place. [M/s Suswarajya Foundation, Satara v. Collector , Satara, AIR 2017 NOC 521 Bombay).

Recital of National Anthem cannot be equated with routine divine prayer. Daily recital of National Anthem in Courts or in its offices is not mandate of the Constitution. [Suresh Kumar Gupta v. State of U.P., AIR 2017 All. 103].

Implementation of Fundamental Duties. Fundamental duties are not enforceable by a writ issued by the Court.

In AIIMS Students Union v. AIIMS, AIR 2001 SC 3262, the Supreme Court declared, "Fundamental duties though not enforceable by a writ of the Court, yet provide a valuable guide a valuable aid to interpretation of the constitutional and legal issues. In case of doubt or choice of people's wish as manifested through Article 51-A, it can serve as a guide not only for resolving the issues but also for constructing or moulding the relief to be given by the Courts. Constitutional enactment of fundamental duties, if it has to have any meaning, must be used by the Courts as a tool to tap, even a taboo, on State action drifting away from constitutional values."

Playing of National Anthem. Section 3 of Prevention of Insults to

National Honour Act, 1971-In Shyam Narayan Chouksey v. Union of India, -AIR 2018 SC 357, the Supreme Court in a PIL held-One is compelled to show respect whenever and wherever the National Anthem is played. It is the elan vital of the nation and fundamental grammer belonging to a native State. The prescription of the place or occasion has to be made by the executive keeping in view the concept of fundamental duties provided under the Constitution and law.

In M.C. Mehta (2) v. Union of India, (1988) 1 SCC 471, the Supreme Court held-under Article 51-A(g), it is the duty of the Central Government to introduce compulsory teaching of lessons at least for one hour in a week on 1 protection and improvement of natural environment in all the educational institutions of the country. It directed the Central Government to get text-books written on that subject and distribute them to the educational institutions free of cost.

In Aruna Roy v. Union of India, AIR 2002 SC 3176, upholding the validity of the National Curriculum Framework for School Education against the challenge of its validity on its supposed contravention with Article 28 as mparting "religious instructions", the Supreme Court observed that the NCFSE does not mention of "religious instructions" as prohibited under Article 28. What is sought to be imparted is incorporated in Article 51-A (e) which lays down duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common sbrotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women and to see that universal values such as birth-related Conduct, peace, love and non-violence be the foundation of education."

Thus, it is clear that though Article 51-A is not enforceable by Courts as Buch it has been accepted by the Court as an important aid to interpretation of segal and constitutional provisions and to development of the Constitutional Law of India.

मौलिक कर्तव्य

(अनुच्छेद 51-ए)

प्रश्न 27. भारतीय संविधान भारत के नागरिकों के लिए उनके मौलिक अधिकारों के साथ-साथ कुछ मौलिक अधिकार भी प्रदान करता है। मौलिक कर्तव्य क्या हैं जो भारत के प्रत्येक नागरिक पर बाध्यकारी हैं?

या

मौलिक कर्तव्य क्या हैं और उनका महत्व क्या है?

(एमजीकेवी 15,18,22)

उत्तर: 

मौलिक कर्तव्य और उनका महत्व

डॉ. स्वर्ण सिंह समिति की सिफारिश पर, संविधान के 42वें संशोधन अधिनियम ने भारत के संविधान में अनुच्छेद 51-ए जोड़ा, जो भारत के प्रत्येक नागरिक के दस कर्तव्य निर्धारित करता है। संविधान के अस्सी-छठे संशोधन अधिनियम ने एक और मौलिक कर्तव्य जोड़ा। नागरिकों के कुल ग्यारह मौलिक कर्तव्य हैं। ऐसे प्रावधान स्वतंत्र विश्व देशों के संविधानों में नहीं हैं, लेकिन इन्हें लागू करने में हमारे विधि-निर्माता कई समाजवादी देशों, जैसे यूगोस्लाविया के संविधानों में मौलिक कर्तव्यों के प्रावधानों से प्रेरित थे। लेकिन भारतीय संविधान में मौलिक कर्तव्य पूर्ववर्ती यू.एस.एस.आर. के संविधान से लिए गए हैं। कर्तव्यों के प्रावधानों का उद्देश्य संविधान का पालन करने के लिए नागरिक का कर्तव्य और रक्षा, अच्छे सामाजिक संबंधों के विकास, सामान्य राष्ट्रीय उत्थान और सामाजिक एकता में उसकी भूमिका है। मौलिक कर्तव्यों का उद्देश्य प्रत्येक नागरिक को यह याद दिलाना है कि संविधान ने उसे कुछ मौलिक अधिकार प्रदान किए हैं, लेकिन उसे लोकतांत्रिक आचरण और लोकतांत्रिक व्यवहार के कुछ बुनियादी मानदंडों का पालन करना भी आवश्यक है। संविधान नागरिकों को कुछ मौलिक अधिकार प्रदान करता है, लेकिन यह राज्य को इन अधिकारों पर उचित प्रतिबंध लगाने की शक्ति भी देता है। संविधान द्वारा गारंटीकृत अधिकार नागरिकों को तभी उपलब्ध होते हैं जब वे अपने कर्तव्यों का पालन करते हैं। यह हमारे संविधान के प्रावधानों में निहित है। मौलिक कर्तव्य (अनुच्छेद 51-ए) - भारत के प्रत्येक नागरिक का यह कर्तव्य होगा कि वह- (क) संविधान का पालन करे और उसके आदर्शों और संस्थाओं, राष्ट्रीय ध्वज और राष्ट्रगान का सम्मान करे; (ख) उन महान आदर्शों को संजोए रखे और उनका पालन करे जिन्होंने हमारे राष्ट्रीय स्वतंत्रता संग्राम को प्रेरित किया; (ग) भारत की संप्रभुता, एकता और अखंडता को बनाए रखे और उसकी रक्षा करे; (घ) देश की रक्षा करे और आह्वान किए जाने पर राष्ट्रीय सेवा करे; (ङ) भारत के सभी लोगों के बीच धार्मिक, भाषाई और क्षेत्रीय या वर्गीय विविधताओं से परे सद्भाव और समान भाईचारे की भावना को बढ़ावा दे; महिलाओं की गरिमा के लिए अपमानजनक प्रथाओं का त्याग करे; (च) हमारी मिश्रित संस्कृति की समृद्ध विरासत को महत्व दे और उसका संरक्षण करे; (छ) वन, झील, नदी और वन्य जीवन सहित प्राकृतिक पर्यावरण की रक्षा और सुधार करना, तथा जीवित प्राणियों के प्रति दया भाव रखना;

(ज) वैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोण, मानवतावाद और जांच और सुधार की भावना विकसित करना;

(झ) सार्वजनिक संपत्ति की सुरक्षा करना और हिंसा का परित्याग करना;

(ज) व्यक्तिगत और सामूहिक गतिविधि के सभी क्षेत्रों में उत्कृष्टता की ओर प्रयास करना, ताकि राष्ट्र निरंतर प्रयास और उपलब्धि के उच्च स्तरों पर पहुंचे;

(ट) जो माता-पिता या अभिभावक है, वह अपने बच्चे या, जैसा भी मामला हो, छह से चौदह वर्ष की आयु के वार्ड को शिक्षा के अवसर प्रदान करे।" (86वें संविधान (संशोधन) अधिनियम, 2002 द्वारा जोड़ा गया)।

सार्वजनिक संपत्ति की सुरक्षा करना प्रत्येक नागरिक का मौलिक कर्तव्य है। राज्य सरकार का यह दायित्व है कि वह राज्य के अधिकारियों द्वारा की जाने वाली किसी भी कार्रवाई पर कार्रवाई करे।

सरकारी नोटिस सार्वजनिक स्थान पर अवैध होर्डिंग बैनर, स्काई साइन, विज्ञापन आदि लगाकर संपत्ति को नुकसान पहुंचाना। [मेसर्स सुस्वराज्य फाउंडेशन, सतारा बनाम कलेक्टर, सतारा, एआईआर 2017 एनओसी 521 बॉम्बे)।

राष्ट्रगान के गायन को नियमित ईश्वरीय प्रार्थना के बराबर नहीं माना जा सकता। न्यायालयों या उसके कार्यालयों में प्रतिदिन राष्ट्रगान का गायन संविधान का आदेश नहीं है। [सुरेश कुमार गुप्ता बनाम उत्तर प्रदेश राज्य, एआईआर 2017 ऑल। 103]।

मौलिक कर्तव्यों का कार्यान्वयन। मौलिक कर्तव्य न्यायालय द्वारा जारी रिट द्वारा लागू नहीं किए जा सकते।

एम्स छात्र संघ बनाम एम्स, एआईआर 2001 एससी 3262 में, सर्वोच्च न्यायालय ने घोषित किया, "मौलिक कर्तव्य यद्यपि न्यायालय के रिट द्वारा लागू नहीं किए जा सकते, फिर भी संवैधानिक और कानूनी मुद्दों की व्याख्या के लिए एक मूल्यवान मार्गदर्शक और मूल्यवान सहायता प्रदान करते हैं। अनुच्छेद 51-ए के माध्यम से प्रकट लोगों की इच्छा के संदेह या विकल्प के मामले में, यह न केवल मुद्दों को हल करने के लिए बल्कि न्यायालयों द्वारा दी जाने वाली राहत का निर्माण या ढालने के लिए भी एक मार्गदर्शक के रूप में काम कर सकता है। मौलिक कर्तव्यों के संवैधानिक अधिनियमन, यदि इसका कोई अर्थ है, तो न्यायालयों द्वारा संवैधानिक मूल्यों से दूर जाने वाले राज्य की कार्रवाई पर रोक लगाने के लिए एक उपकरण के रूप में इसका उपयोग किया जाना चाहिए।"

राष्ट्रगान बजाना। राष्ट्रीय सम्मान के अपमान की रोकथाम की धारा 3 अधिनियम, 1971-श्याम नारायण चौकसे बनाम भारत संघ, -एआईआर 2018 एससी 357 में, सर्वोच्च न्यायालय ने एक जनहित याचिका में कहा-जब भी और जहाँ भी राष्ट्रगान बजाया जाता है, तो सम्मान दिखाना अनिवार्य है। यह राष्ट्र का मूलाधार है और किसी भी राज्य का मूल व्याकरण है। स्थान या अवसर का निर्धारण संविधान और कानून के तहत दिए गए मौलिक कर्तव्यों की अवधारणा को ध्यान में रखते हुए कार्यपालिका द्वारा किया जाना चाहिए।

एम.सी. मेहता (2) बनाम भारत संघ, (1988) 1 एससीसी 471 में, सर्वोच्च न्यायालय ने अनुच्छेद 51-ए (जी) के तहत माना कि केंद्र सरकार का कर्तव्य है कि वह देश के सभी शैक्षणिक संस्थानों में प्राकृतिक पर्यावरण के संरक्षण और सुधार पर सप्ताह में कम से कम एक घंटे के लिए अनिवार्य रूप से पाठ पढ़ाना शुरू करे। इसने केंद्र सरकार को निर्देश दिया कि वह उस विषय पर पाठ्य-पुस्तकें लिखवाए और उन्हें शैक्षणिक संस्थानों में निःशुल्क वितरित करे।

अरुणा रॉय बनाम भारत संघ, एआईआर 2002 एससी 3176 में, अनुच्छेद 28 के साथ कथित उल्लंघन पर इसकी वैधता की चुनौती के खिलाफ स्कूल शिक्षा के लिए राष्ट्रीय पाठ्यचर्या रूपरेखा की वैधता को बरकरार रखते हुए, "धार्मिक निर्देश" प्रदान करते हुए, सर्वोच्च न्यायालय ने देखा कि एनसीएफएसई अनुच्छेद 28 के तहत निषिद्ध "धार्मिक निर्देशों" का उल्लेख नहीं करता है। जो प्रदान करने की मांग की जाती है, वह अनुच्छेद 51-ए (ई) में शामिल है, जो भारत के सभी लोगों के बीच सद्भाव और आम भाईचारे की भावना को बढ़ावा देने का कर्तव्य निर्धारित करता है, जो धार्मिक, भाषाई और क्षेत्रीय या वर्गीय विविधताओं से परे है, महिलाओं की गरिमा के लिए अपमानजनक प्रथाओं का त्याग करें और देखें कि जन्म से संबंधित आचरण, शांति, प्रेम और अहिंसा जैसे सार्वभौमिक मूल्य शिक्षा का आधार बनें। इस प्रकार, यह स्पष्ट है कि हालांकि अनुच्छेद 51-ए न्यायालयों द्वारा लागू करने योग्य नहीं है, लेकिन इसे न्यायालय द्वारा संवैधानिक और संवैधानिक प्रावधानों की व्याख्या और विकास के लिए एक महत्वपूर्ण सहायता के रूप में स्वीकार किया गया है। भारत का संवैधानिक कानून।

Administrative law-Definition and Importance

Definition and importance of administrative law.

Q1. Define administrative law. Describe the importance of administrative law in a Welfare State.
Or
Is it correct to say that administrative law aims to controlling the function of the administration?

Answer

Definition 

Administrative law is a branch of public law, which deals with a structure, power and function of the organs of the administration, the limits of their powers and the methods by which their powers are controlled, including the legal remedies, available against them.

The emphasis should be on the exercise of powers as well as on its control. In simple words. Professor Janing defines administrative law as the law relating to administration. It determines the organisation, powers and duties of the administrative authorities.

In English and American administrative law, the organisation of administrative authorities is not treated as the subject of discussion, whereas in France, Italy and other continental countries the discussion on organising of administrative authorities is regarded as one of the essentials of this subject of administrative law. HLA Hart does not include the discussion on the organisation of administrative authorities in the definition of administrative law, he defines broadly conceived.

Administrative law includes law that is made as well as the law that controls the administrative authorities of the government. Various attempts have been made to define administrative law, its natural scope and content, but none is completely satisfactory in the sense that some definitions are too broad, whereas some are too narrow. Diecy


 Diecy has defined administrative law as it is that portion of the nation's legal system, which determines the legal status and liabilities of all state officials and secondly, defines the rights and liabilities of private individuals in their dealings with public officials and thirdly specifies the procedures by which those rights and liberties are enforced. This definition is narrow and restrictive in so far as it does not take into consideration, mainly in many aspects of administrative law, such as public corporations, etc.

His definition is mainly concerned with one aspect of the administrative law, namely judicial control of public officials. In England, he says that the system of administrative law and the very principle on which it rests our in truth, unknown. The view of dicey's erroneous definition does not take into consideration.

Many administrative authorities procedures of such authorities for their various powers and functions or other controls upon them. For example, parliamentary control. Professor bairde has defined it as the law concerned with the operation and control of the powers of administrative authorities with emphasis on function rather than structure Iver genius definition is broad and reflects a balanced approach when he says administrative law is the law relating to administration, it determines the organisational powers and duties of the administrative authorities.

Made and philips define administrative law as a branch of public law, which is concerned with the composition powers, duties, rights and liabilities of the various organs of the government, which are engaged in administration thus definition given by weight and Phillips, is similar to the definition by iverning KC Davis defence administrative law. As the law concerning the powers and procedures of administrative agencies, including the cine. The law governing judicial review of administrative action.

An administrative agency is a government authority other than a court and other than a legislative body, which affects the rights of private parties through either adjunction education or rule, making thus Prof. Davis has pointed out the 3 large segments of administrative law, which relate to transfer of power from legislative to administrative agencies, exercise of powers. By the agency's and review of administrative action by the court According to Prof.

Davis, it does not include the enormous mass of substantive law produced by the agencies, much of which is beyond their understanding of lawyers as such, it includes judicial review of the executive or administrative action, not involving either education or rule making Prof. Vaid, according to him, since administrative deals with the exercise of governmental powers, it is itself as part of the constitutional law, the essence of administrative lies in the judge by doctrine, which applies right across-the-board and which therefore set legal standard of conduct for public authorities.

Generally, Prof. Hart says broadly conceived administrative law includes law, that is made by judges as well as the law. Controls the administrative authorities of our government.

Both these definitions have ignored certain aspects of the subject which strictly fall within the scope administrative law today. But it is true that administrative law is in modern times is primarily concerned with techniques of control over the exercise of the multiferous multiferous powers of administrative authorities rather than their structure. Professor swaarth scw ART z defines administrative law in the following words.

Administrative law is that the branch of the law, which controls administrative operation of the government, broadly speaking, administrative law, law, administrative law deals with composition and powers of different organs of the administration, the limits of their powers and the procedure, which the administrative authorities shall adopt in excise of their powers and various modes of their control, including particularly judicial control over the different kinds of powers exercised by them. Precisely it deals with the causing legislative and quasis, judicial powers of the administrative authorities along with their executive powers and their control after considering these various definitions, it can be concluded here that administrative law deals with the powers of administration, particularly causing legislative and qualicies, causes judicial powers and their control.

Nowadays in almost every country of the world, the great importance of the study of administrative law is recognised as far as India is concerned, it is of great importance because the objective of the Constitution is to establish a socialist democratic society, according to professor JJR Upadhyay, a developing country, like India, where the roots of democracy are not deep, a strong bureaucracy may have the tendency to ride rough shot over the rights of the people. If exercise properly, the vast powers of administration may lead to the Welfare State, but if abused, they may lead to administrative disposition, this optimism and a total Italian state, the study of administrative law has become inevitable in view of the fact that it is a potent weapon to control government power through judicial process.

Doctrine of Eclipse

 

Short Note:

Q. Explain the Doctrine of Eclipse.  (MGKV 2016,017,18, 22) (229 words).

The Doctrine of Eclipse, dictates that pre-constitutional laws conflicting with fundamental rights are not entirely void but are temporarily "eclipsed," meaning they become dormant or unenforceable. This allows for potential revival of these laws if the fundamental rights are amended to remove the conflict.

Key Aspects of the Doctrine of Eclipse:

1. Applicability: Primarily applies to laws enacted before the Indian Constitution came into force (1950). 
2. Function: It prevents the complete nullification of pre-constitutional laws that might be temporarily inconsistent with the Constitution. 
3.  Dormancy: The eclipsed law remains in a state of suspended animation, effectively unenforceable during the period of inconsistency. 
4.  Revival: If the fundamental rights are later amended to remove the conflict, the eclipsed law automatically revives and regains its enforceability. 
5. Constitutional Basis: The doctrine is rooted in Article 13(1) of the Indian Constitution, which states that all laws inconsistent with fundamental rights are void to the extent of such inconsistency. 
6.  Distinction from Severability: While the Doctrine of Eclipse focuses on the entire law being "eclipsed," the Doctrine of Severability allows for striking down only the unconstitutional parts while preserving the rest of the law.

Example

If a law passed before 1950 restricts freedom of speech (a fundamental right), it would be considered eclipsed. However, if the Constitution is later amended to remove that restriction, the law could potentially be revived and enforced